All Curated Mutation Sites in SARS-CoV-2 
Back to Mutation Home

 The Virus Mutation(VM) module provides researchers the annotations of reported pathogenic mutations in SARS-CoV-2 related to human diseases. The curated VM information includes mutation site, mutation level, virus gene/protein/region, virus-associated disease, genotype/subtype, literature evidence, etc.


Browse Data by Virus Gene/Protein/Region, Disease OR Description
*Please select one option you are interested in, the page will be automatically redirected.
     
     

For highly variable viruses (e.g., HBV, HIV, SARS-CoV-2), ViMIC defaults to displaying mutations in a specific region. Click the green button to search for other regions, or click "Show All" to view all mutations (loading speed may be affected by network conditions).

Show All
  
ORF1a
  
ORF1b
  
ORF3a
  
3CLpro
  
3'UTR
  
5'UTR
  
RBD
  
ORF7b-ORF8
  
upstream of N
  
Furin cleavage site
  
E
  
endoRNase
  
Exonuclease
  
S
  
NSP13
  
NSP3
  
M
  
Mpro
  
Methyltransferase
  
N
  
NSP14
  
NSP12
  
Non-coding region
  
NP
  
NS3
  
NS7a
  
NS7b
  
NS8
  
NSP5
  
NSP1
  
NSP10
  
NSP11
  
NSP15
  
NSP16
  
NSP2
  
NSP4
  
NSP6
  
NSP7
  
NSP8
  
NSP9
  
NTD
  
ORF8
  
ORF1ab
  
ORF9b
  
ORF10
  
ORF3
  
ORF6
  
ORF7a
  
ORF7b
  
ORF9
  
ORF9c
  
PLpro
  
RdRp
  
RBM
  
Replicase
  
RNA primase
  

Keyword: M
ID PMID Mutation Gene/Protein/Region Encoding Gene/Protein Disease Description Detail
1 39616206 K14R
M
M
Cell line
S
View
2 39616206 K15R
M
M
Cell line
S
View
3 39616206 Q222A
M
M
Cell line
S
View
4 37637734 H163W
M
M
Cell line
D
View
5 37637734 H41M
M
M
Cell line
View
6 37637734 H41T
M
M
Cell line
View
7 37637734 H41Y
M
M
Cell line
View
8 37637734 E166A
M
M
Cell line
D
View
9 37637734 L167F
M
M
Cell line
D
View
10 37637734 E166H
M
M
Cell line
D
View
11 37637734 E166I
M
M
Cell line
D
View
12 37637734 E166K
M
M
Cell line
D
View
13 37637734 E166L
M
M
Cell line
D
View
14 37637734 E166Y
M
M
Cell line
D
View
15 37637734 E166Q
M
M
Cell line
View
16 37637734 H275Y
M
M
Cell line
D
View
17 37637734 S31N
M
M
Cell line
D
View
18 37637734 S144K
M
M
Cell line
D
View
19 37637734 S144P
M
M
Cell line
D
View
20 37637734 S144R
M
M
Cell line
D
View
21 37637734 H164N
M
M
Cell line
View
22 37637734 49delM
M
M
Cell line
View
23 37637734 Q189E
M
M
Cell line
View
24 37637734 M165A
M
M
Cell line
View
25 37637734 M165C
M
M
Cell line
View
26 37637734 M165I
M
M
Cell line
View
27 37637734 M165L
M
M
Cell line
View
28 37637734 M165V
M
M
Cell line
View
29 37637734 G15S
M
M
Cell line
View
30 37637734 K90R
M
M
Cell line
View
31 37637734 L205V
M
M
Cell line
View
32 37637734 L89F
M
M
Cell line
View
33 37637734 P108S
M
M
Cell line
View
34 37637734 P132H
M
M
Cell line
View
35 37637734 T21I
M
M
Cell line
View
36 37637734 S144L
M
M
Cell line
View
37 37637734 L50F
M
M
Cell line
D
View
38 37637734 S144D
M
M
Cell line
D
View
39 37637734 S144E
M
M
Cell line
D
View
40 37637734 S144H
M
M
Cell line
D
View
41 37637734 S144Q
M
M
Cell line
D
View
42 37637734 S144T
M
M
Cell line
D
View
43 37637734 S144V
M
M
Cell line
D
View
44 37637734 S144W
M
M
Cell line
D
View
45 37637734 H165Y
M
M
Cell line
View
46 37637734 T135I
M
M
Cell line
View
47 37637734 H172A
M
M
Cell line
D
View
48 37637734 H172Y
M
M
Cell line
D
View
49 37637734 M165Y
M
M
Cell line
D
View
50 37637734 M49I
M
M
Cell line
View
51 37637734 M49L
M
M
Cell line
View
52 37637734 M49T
M
M
Cell line
View
53 37637734 M49V
M
M
Cell line
View
54 37637734 H172C
M
M
Cell line
View
55 37637734 H172D
M
M
Cell line
View
56 37637734 H172E
M
M
Cell line
View
57 37637734 H172G
M
M
Cell line
View
58 37637734 H172I
M
M
Cell line
View
59 37637734 H172K
M
M
Cell line
View
60 37637734 H172L
M
M
Cell line
View
61 37637734 H172M
M
M
Cell line
View
62 37637734 H172N
M
M
Cell line
View
63 37637734 H172R
M
M
Cell line
View
64 37637734 H172S
M
M
Cell line
View
65 37637734 H172T
M
M
Cell line
View
66 37637734 H172V
M
M
Cell line
View
67 37637734 M165D
M
M
Cell line
View
68 37637734 M165F
M
M
Cell line
View
69 37637734 M165G
M
M
Cell line
View
70 37637734 M165H
M
M
Cell line
View
71 37637734 M165K
M
M
Cell line
View
72 37637734 M165P
M
M
Cell line
View
73 37637734 M165R
M
M
Cell line
View
74 37637734 M165W
M
M
Cell line
View
75 37637734 E166G
M
M
Cell line
D
View
76 37637734 E166V
M
M
Cell line
D
View
77 37637734 H172F
M
M
Cell line
D
View
78 37637734 H172Q
M
M
Cell line
D
View
79 37637734 M165T
M
M
Cell line
D
View
80 37637734 Q192A
M
M
Cell line
D
View
81 37637734 Q192C
M
M
Cell line
D
View
82 37637734 Q192F
M
M
Cell line
D
View
83 37637734 Q192H
M
M
Cell line
D
View
84 37637734 Q192I
M
M
Cell line
D
View
85 37637734 Q192L
M
M
Cell line
D
View
86 37637734 Q192P
M
M
Cell line
D
View
87 37637734 Q192S
M
M
Cell line
D
View
88 37637734 Q192T
M
M
Cell line
D
View
89 37637734 Q192V
M
M
Cell line
D
View
90 37637734 Q192W
M
M
Cell line
D
View
91 37637734 S144A
M
M
Cell line
D
View
92 37637734 S144F
M
M
Cell line
D
View
93 37637734 S144G
M
M
Cell line
D
View
94 37637734 S144M
M
M
Cell line
D
View
95 37637734 S144Y
M
M
Cell line
D
View
96 37637734 166delE
M
M
Cell line
D
View
97 37637734 164delH
M
M
Cell line
D
View
98 37637734 172delH
M
M
Cell line
D
View
99 37637734 165delM
M
M
Cell line
D
View
100 37637734 142delN
M
M
Cell line
D
View
101 37637734 189delQ
M
M
Cell line
D
View
102 37637734 192delQ
M
M
Cell line
D
View
103 37637734 144delS
M
M
Cell line
D
View
104 37637734 135delT
M
M
Cell line
D
View
105 39047088 T21I
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
106 39047088 L50F
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
107 39047088 P108S
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
108 39047088 T135I
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
109 39047088 F140L
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
110 39047088 S144A
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
111 39047088 C160F
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
112 39047088 E166A
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
113 39047088 E166V
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
114 39047088 L167F
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
115 39047088 T169I
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
116 39047088 H172Y
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
117 39047088 A173V
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
118 39047088 V186A
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
119 39047088 R188G
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
120 39047088 A191V
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
121 39047088 A193P
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
122 39047088 P252L
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
123 39047088 S301P
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
124 39047088 T304I
M
M
Cell line
D
R
S
View
125 36539656 H125Y
M
M
Cell line
S
L
View
126 37796123 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
Cell line
G
R
View
127 37796123 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
Cell line
G
R
View
128 38731879 I82T
M
M

R
View
129 38731879 A63T
M
M

R
View
130 38731879 D3G
M
M

R
View
131 38731879 Q19E
M
M

R
View
132 37093365 D3G
M
M

G
View
133 37093365 Q19E
M
M

G
View
134 37093365 A63T
M
M

G
View
135 36537060 A26530G
M
M

G
View
136 36537060 G26709A
M
M

G
View
137 36537060 D3G
M
M

G
View
138 36537060 A63T
M
M

G
View
139 36537060 A27259C
M
M

G
View
140 35551247 I82T
M
M

G
L
View
141 35733956 R44S
M
M

G
R
View
142 36512569 G26730C
M
M

G
R
L
View
143 36512569 V70L
M
M

G
R
L
View
144 36548384 A2S
M
M

R
L
View
145 36548384 A69S
M
M

R
L
View
146 36548384 V70F
M
M

R
L
View
147 36548384 M109I
M
M

R
L
View
148 36548384 H155N
M
M

R
L
View
149 36548384 H155Y
M
M

R
L
View
150 36548384 Q185H
M
M

R
L
View
151 36548384 I82T
M
M

R
L
View
152 35798721 T7I
M
M

S
View
153 35966675 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
154 35966675 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
155 35966675 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
156 36755883 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
157 36755883 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
158 37737624 A26530G
M
M
COVID-19
G
S
L
View
159 37737624 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
S
L
View
160 37737624 C26577G
M
M
COVID-19
G
S
L
View
161 37737624 G26709A
M
M
COVID-19
G
S
L
View
162 37737624 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
S
L
View
163 37737624 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
G
S
L
View
164 37965255 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
C
L
View
165 37965255 D3N
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
C
L
View
166 37965255 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
C
L
View
167 39416782 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
G
L
View
168 39416782 D3N
M
M
COVID-19
G
L
View
169 39416782 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
L
View
170 37275159 D3N
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
171 37275159 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
172 35189404 C26681T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
173 35189404 F53F
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
174 39015352 L50F
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
175 39015352 I213V
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
176 39015352 L227F
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
177 36846745 N121N
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
178 36846745 F53F
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
179 35156767 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
View
180 35966675 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
181 35966679 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
L
View
182 36590492 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
L
View
183 36687433 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
L
View
184 38435775 G79X
M
M
COVID-19
G
C
L
View
185 38435775 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
C
L
View
186 38435775 S197T
M
M
COVID-19
G
C
L
View
187 37243279 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
188 37243279 L29F
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
189 39015352 T21I
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
190 39015352 K90R
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
191 37744926 A27038G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
192 37224159 C26577G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
193 37224159 A26612T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
194 37224159 G26709A
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
195 37224159 C26858T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
196 37224159 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
197 37224159 F112F
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
198 37224159 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
199 37224159 T30T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
200 36755883 D3N
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
201 39227954 100delF
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
202 39227954 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
203 39227954 99delS
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
204 37376693 A26530G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
L
View
205 34634791 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
View
206 34634791 I82S
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
View
207 33896413 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
208 35966679 F28L
M
M
COVID-19
G
L
View
209 37573409 G26828T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
210 40133357 C26645T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
211 33896413 V70L
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
212 34125658 V70L
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
213 37243279 H210R
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
214 37243279 S212R
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
215 39015352 A191V
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
216 39015352 P132H
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
217 39015352 P108S
M
M
COVID-19
D
G
C
L
View
218 35992703 E167K
M
M
COVID-19
G
L
View
219 38601946 G26558T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
C
L
View
220 38601946 E12D
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
C
L
View
221 38125422 A26530G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
222 38125422 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
223 37849762 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
224 38605705 G26529A
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
225 38605705 C26577G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
226 38605705 G26709A
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
227 38605705 C27012T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
228 38605705 A27038G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
229 38605705 D3N
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
230 38605705 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
231 38605705 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
S
C
L
View
232 38632523 C26577G
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
233 38632523 G26709A
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
234 38632523 C26858T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
235 38632523 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
236 38632523 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
G
R
L
View
237 39294134 A188S
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
C
L
View
238 39294134 I76T
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
C
L
View
239 32595354 V10A
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
240 36090111 F53F
M
M
COVID-19
R
C
L
View
241 36090111 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
C
L
View
242 36090111 L164L
M
M
COVID-19
R
C
L
View
243 36090111 V66V
M
M
COVID-19
R
C
L
View
244 36841805 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
245 36841805 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
246 36841805 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
247 36672914 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
248 36672914 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
249 36672914 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
250 33384909 T175M
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
251 40143342 H125Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
252 40143342 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
253 40143342 K162N
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
254 40281619 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
255 35996593 H125Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
256 36405589 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
C
L
View
257 36528612 D377Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
258 36528612 D63G
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
259 36528612 G215C
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
260 36528612 G204R
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
261 36528612 D3L
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
262 36528612 S235F
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
263 36528612 Q9L
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
264 36528612 A220V
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
265 36528612 P199L
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
266 36528612 G204P
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
267 36528612 V70L
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
268 36528612 A81S
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
269 36528612 F28L
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
270 36528612 S197N
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
271 36528612 T30I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
272 36528612 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
273 36528612 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
274 36528612 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
275 36528612 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
276 36528612 A2S
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
277 36841805 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
278 35707124 I24T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
279 35707124 L46F
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
280 35759503 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
281 35759503 T26767C
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
282 35891618 L93L
M
M
COVID-19
S
L
View
283 37903828 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
284 37903828 L87F
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
285 37903828 L29F
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
286 37903828 A104V
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
287 37903828 A69S
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
288 37903828 H125Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
289 37903828 V70F
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
290 37903828 T175M
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
291 37903828 D160Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
292 38348230 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
293 36474565 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
294 36474565 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
295 36474565 F100I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
296 36474565 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
297 36474565 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
298 36474565 A2V
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
299 36474565 L16I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
300 36474565 F28L
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
301 36474565 H155Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
302 36474565 V70I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
303 36474565 S214I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
304 36474565 L34F
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
305 36474565 I201V
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
306 36474565 H125Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
307 36474565 A69S
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
308 36474565 T30I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
309 36474565 V70F
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
310 36474565 M1I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
311 36474565 S4F
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
312 36474565 D209Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
313 36474565 E167D
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
314 36474565 M109I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
315 36474565 L29F
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
316 36474565 T208I
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
317 36474565 A81S
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
318 36474565 G6V
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
319 36474565 A40S
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
320 32300673 T26729C
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
321 37529147 A63T
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
322 37529147 D163D
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
323 37529147 F112F
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
324 37529147 Q19E
M
M
COVID-19
R
S
L
View
325 40006937 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
S
L
View
326 40006937 T26767C
M
M
COVID-19
S
L
View
327 34125658 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
L
View
328 35208920 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
329 32816316 D3G
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
330 32937868 C27046T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
331 32937868 T175M
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
332 33163695 A2V
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
333 33163695 H125Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
334 34938188 C145A
M
M
COVID-19
View
335 39015352 C16S
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
336 39015352 L32F
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
337 39015352 V91D
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
338 39015352 V91I
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
339 39015352 N95A
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
340 39015352 G143D
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
341 39015352 V157W
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
342 39015352 F159S
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
343 39015352 M162I
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
344 39015352 V171D
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
345 39015352 G174S
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
346 39015352 D176S
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
347 39015352 L177S
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
348 39015352 E178W
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
349 39015352 F181T
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
350 39015352 Y182N
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
351 39015352 A234V
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
352 39015352 H246R
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
353 39015352 D263Y
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
354 39015352 G278R
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
355 39015352 R279C
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
356 39015352 T280A
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
357 39015352 G283D
M
M
COVID-19
C
L
View
358 38668234 Y71Y
M
M
COVID-19
R
C
L
View
359 38668234 I82T
M
M
COVID-19
R
C
L
View
360 36343703 C26735T
M
M
COVID-19
R
View
361 32595354 C26735T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
362 32595354 C26549T
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
363 32595354 G26720C
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
364 32595354 T26551C
M
M
COVID-19
R
L
View
365 39660912 A63T
M
M
Cell line
G
View
366 39660912 D3G
M
M
Cell line
G
View
367 39660912 Q19E
M
M
Cell line
G
View
Contents
Description

The table shows all curated mutation sites of SARS-CoV-2 in each literature

Table Description Column Note
D
The study mentioned a certain treatment method, such as drug resistance caused by mutations.
G
The study mentioned the virus genotype/subtype information.
R
The study mentioned the reference sequence used for comparison, or the original strain of the virus used for site-directed mutagenesis.
S
The study provided sequence information or accession numbers.
L
The study provided the geographic region/country of data origin.
C
The study provided clinical baseline information.
I
The study involved information related to immune.
T
The study involved host target genes.